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$P(x)$ is a polynomial, whose degree is either $1$ or $0$ (we do not know exactly which).

$Q(x)$ is a polynomial, whose degree is unknown.

Assuming that the degree of $P(x)$ is $1$, I prove that

Degree of $Q(x) = 1$ $\implies$ Degree of $Q(x) = A > 1$.

Can I conclude that the degree of $P(x)$ is $0$?

I think this is an example of an invalid proof by contradiction, but I wanted to double-check.

The reason is that a statement of the form

$$p \implies NOT(p) $$ is not a contradiction.

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It would seem that you just proved $\deg P=0\lor \deg Q\ne 1$. Technically, I would say that you proved $(\deg P=0\lor \deg Q\ne 1\lor Q=0)$, but that's just my convention of choice of $0$ not having a degree.